Procedure; study | Study design | Level of evidence* | Type of surgery | Intervention | Control | No. of participants | Mean age, yr | % female | Length of follow-up, d |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total knee arthroplasty | |||||||||
Allen et al.,21 1998 | RCT | I | Femoral 3-in-1 block | Spinal anesthetic block | 44 | 72.3 | 53.9 | 2 | |
Andersen et al.,22 2010 | RCT | I | Ropivacaine + ketorolac + epinephrine LAI | Placebo | 49 | 68 | 35 | 3 | |
Badner et al.,23 1996 | RCT | I | Bupivacaine LAI before or after wound closure | Placebo | 80 | 68.3 | 64.3 | 1 | |
Borckardt et al.,24 2013 | RCT | I | tDCS | Placebo | 40 | 67 | 74.4 | 2 | |
Buvanendran et al.,25 2003 | RCT | I | Rofecoxib | Placebo | 70 | 61 | 67 | 1.75 | |
Chan et al.,26 2015 | RCT | I | Dexmedetomidine | Placebo | 40 | 66.15 | 70 | 1 | |
Essving et al.,27 2010 | RCT | I | Ropivacaine + ketorolac + epinephrine LAI | Placebo | 48 | 71 | 54.2 | 2 | |
Essving et al.,28 2011 | RCT | I | Ropivacaine + ketorolac + epinephrine LAI | Morphine | 50 | 71 | 64 | 2 | |
Goyal et al.,29 2013 | RCT | I | 0.5% bupivacaine, 300 mL (intra-articular infusion) | Placebo | 150 | 64.8 | 56.7 | 3 | |
Gomez-Cardero et al.,30 2010 | RCT | I | 0.2% ropivacaine, 300 mL (intra-articular infusion) | Placebo | 50 | 71.3 | 62 | 3 | |
Hanson et al.,31 2014 | RCT | I | 0.2% ropivacaine ACB | Placebo | 80 | 67 | NR | 2 | |
He et al.,32 2013 | RCT | I | Auricular acupressure | Placebo | 90 | 62.1 | 62.2 | 7 | |
Ho et al.,33 2010 | RCT | I | Duloxetine, 60 mg | Placebo | 50 | 65.5 | 70.2 | 2 | |
Huang et al.,34 2007 | RCT | I | Celecoxib, 400 mg then 200 mg every 12 h + morphine PCA | PCA | 80 | 70 | NR | 3 | |
Hubbard et al.,35 2003 | RCT | I | Parecoxib, 20 or 40 mg | Placebo | 195 | 68.9 | NR | 2 | |
Inan et al.,36 2007 | RCT | I | Lornoxicam, 16 mg (intravenously) 15 min before surgery, and 8 mg at 12th and 24th h postoperatively | Placebo | 46 | 63 | 85 | 2 | |
Jenstrup et al.,37 2012 | RCT | I | 0.75% ropivacaine ACB | Placebo | 75 | 47.9 | 34 | 1 | |
Kampitak et al.,38 2019 | RCT | I | ONB + TNB | ONB or TNB | 90 | 70.8 | 86.5 | 8 | |
Lamplot et al.,39 2014 | RCT | I | 0.5% bupivacaine + magnesium sulfate, 10 mg + ketorolac + tramadol LAI | PCA | 36 | 64.6 | 50 | 21 | |
Leung et al.,40 2018 | RCT | I | ACB | Placebo | 165 | 64.6 | 77.5 | 0.83 | |
Mont et al.,41 2018 | RCT | I | Liposomal bupivacaine LAI | Bupivacaine | 140 | 66 | 59 | 3 | |
Nader et al.,42 2016 | RCT | I | 0.25% bupivacaine + epinephrine ACB | Placebo | 40 | 68 | 70 | 1.5 | |
Pham Dang et al.,43 2005 | RCT | FNB + SNB | FNB | 28 | 71.7 | 83 | 2 | ||
Runge et al.,44 2016 | RCT | I | ONB + FTB | Placebo | 75 | 71.3 | 50.7 | 2 | |
Sahin et al.,45 2014 | RCT | I | FNB | Placebo | 110 | 60 | 68.3 | 2 | |
Samona et al.,46 2017 | RCT | I | Dexamethasone | Placebo | 102 | 63.8 | 56.9 | 3 | |
Sarridou et al.,47 2014 | RCT | I | Parecoxib (intravenously) + FNB | Placebo | 90 | 70.5 | 83.3 | 1.5 | |
Thijs et al.,48 2018 | RCT | I | Cryotherapy | Placebo | 60 | 65.1 | 46.7 | 42 | |
Usichenki et al.,49 2007 | RCT | I | MWT | Placebo | 80 | 66.5 | 63.7 | 9 | |
Venditolli et al.,50 2006 | RCT | I | Ropivacaine + etodolac + adrenaline LAI | Placebo | 52 | NR | 57.7 | 5 | |
Williams et al.,51 2013 | RCT | I | Bupivacaine (intra-articular infusion) | Placebo | 67 | 66.5 | 58.9 | 2 | |
Banerjee52 2014 | RCS | III | 0.2% ropivacaine + epinephrine + ketorolac, 30 mg LAI | Placebo | 64 | 70.9 | 67.2 | 2 | |
Chin et al.,53 2020 | ROS | III | Gabapentin | Placebo | 4046 | NR | 62 | NR | |
Klement et al.,54 2019 | RCR | III | ACC + iPACK | Single-shot FNB + LB-PAI | 264 | 66.2 | 56.4 | 2 | |
Kuo et al.,55 2017 | RCR | III | PIA | Placebo | 76 | 67.3 | 5.3 | 1 | |
Xiao et al.,56 2018 | RCR | III | Celecoxib or flurbiprofen axetil | Placebo | 300 | 61.8 | 33.7 | 365 | |
Horlocker et al.,57 2002 | Case report | IV | Acetaminophen + ketorolac LPB | Placebo | 1 | 74 | 100 | 2 | |
Stevenson et al.,58 2018 | Case report | IV | Acetaminophen, 325 g + diclofenac sodium gel + meloxicam | Acetaminophen + oxycodone | 1 | 77 | 100 | 120 | |
Total hip arthroplasty | |||||||||
Aguirre et al.,59 2012 | RCT | I | 0.3% ropivacaine LAI | Placebo | 76 | 58 | 48.6 | 2 | |
Becchi et al.,60 2008 | RCT | I | 0.75% ropivacaine psoas catheter | Morphine + ketorolac | 73 | 70 | 55.7 | 2 | |
Bilir et al.,61 2007 | RCT | I | Fentanyl + magnesium epidural | Fentanyl | 50 | 60.4 | 52 | 1 | |
Camu et al.,62 2002 | RCT | I | Valdecoxib, 20 or 40 mg | Placebo | 217 | 66.3 | 62.2 | 2 | |
Clarke et al.,63 2009 | RCT | I | Gabapentin | Placebo | 126 | 61.3 | 46.2 | 2 | |
Desmet et al.,64 2017 | RCT | I | 0.5% ropivacaine, 40 mL, longitudinal suprainguinal FICB | Placebo | 88 | 63.5 | 61.1 | 1 | |
Fogarty et al.,65 1995 | RCT | I | Ketorolac, 30 mg (intramuscularly) | Placebo | 60 | 65 | 57 | 1 | |
Hwang et al.,66 2010 | RCT | I | Magnesium sulfate | Placebo | 40 | 47 | 45 | 2 | |
Köroglu et al.,67 2008 | RCT | I | 0.25% bupivacaine, 40 mL femoral 3-in-1 block | Placebo | 30 | 57.2 | 30 | 2 | |
Laitenan et al.,68 1992 | RCT | I | Diclofenac | Placebo | 40 | 63.3 | 52 | 1 | |
Lan et al.,69 2012 | RCT | I | TENS on acupoints (bilateral P6, L14; ST36, GB31 ipsilateral to surgery site) | Placebo | 68 | 75.5 | 55 | 2 | |
Malan et al.,70 2003 | RCT | I | Parecoxib, 20 or 40 mg | Placebo | 201 | 63 | 42 | 1.5 | |
Martinez et al.,71 2013 | RCT | I | Ketamine and/or pregabalin | Placebo | 142 | 52.2 | 40.4 | 2 | |
Murphy et al.,72 2012 | RCT | I | Levobupivacaine (periarticular infusion) | Placebo | 45 | 57.4 | 42.9 | 3 | |
Remérand et al.,73 2009 | RCT | I | Ketamine | Placebo | 154 | 64.5 | 49.1 | 7 | |
Serpell et al.,74 1989 | RCT | I | Piroxicam | Placebo | 24 | 67.5 | 41.7 | 2 | |
Siddiqui et al.,75 2007 | RCT | I | LPB | PCA | 34 | 55.5 | 52.9 | 1.5 | |
Stevens et al.,76 2007 | RCT | I | 0.5% bupivacaine, 30 mL + epinephrine + clonidine, 150 μg + 0.9% saline, 9 mL FICB | Placebo | 44 | 67.8 | 41 | 1 | |
Ward et al.,77 2012 | RCT | I | FNB | Placebo | 40 | 38.4 | 58.3 | 1.5 | |
Gurkan et al.,78 2018 | RCT | I | Ibuprofen, 800 mg (intravenously) | Placebo | 40 | 49 | 70 | 1 | |
Post et al.,79 2010 | PCS | II | Acetaminophen, 975 mg + celecoxib, 400 mg + pregabalin, 75 mg every 12 h | Placebo | 116 | 62.7 | 57 | 2 | |
Banerjee et al.,80 2011 | RCS | III | 0.2% ropivacaine + epinephrine + ketorolac, 30 mg LAI | Placebo | 204 | 69.6 | 58.4 | 2 | |
Maheshwari et al.,81 2006 | RCR | III | Multimodal therapy regimen | Placebo | 144 | 65.1 | 55.7 | 3 | |
Uusalo et al.,82 2019 | RCS | III | Dexmedetomidine, 50 μg (intranasally) | Placebo | 120 | 57.5 | NR | 2 | |
VanWagner et al.,83 2019 | RCS | III | Bupivacaine LAI | Placebo | 170 | 65.3 | NR | 3 | |
Total knee arthroplasty and total hip arthroplasty | |||||||||
Alexander et al.,84 2002 | RCT | I | Diclofenac, 75 mg + ketorolac, 60 mg | Placebo | 102 | 65.2 | 63.8 | 1 | |
Arcioni et al.,85 2007 | RCT | I | Magnesium sulfate (intrathecally and/or epidural) + spinal | Placebo | 120 | 59.5 | 57.2 | 1.5 | |
Boeckstyns et al.,86 1992 | RCT | I | Piroxicam | Placebo | 117 | NR | NR | 10 | |
Oberhofer et al.,87 2011 | RCT | I | Levobupivacaine spinal | Placebo | 40 | 67.9 | 60 | 1 | |
Kazerooni et al.,88 2012 | RCT | I | Celecoxib, 200 mg twice daily | Placebo | 141 | 64.2 | 5.7 | NR | |
Singla et al.,89 2010 | RCT | I | Ibuprofen | Placebo | 34 | 55.5 | 52.9 | 1.5 | |
Raiff et al.,90 2014 | RCS | III | Acetaminophen (intravenously) | Placebo | 176 | 62 | 37.5 | 1 | |
Spinal surgery | |||||||||
Aveline et al.,91 2006 | RCT | I | Lumbar disc surgery | Morphine and/or ketamine | Placebo | 69 | 45.8 | 52.9 | 2 |
Cassinelli et al.,92 2008 | RCT | I | Primary multilevel lumbar decompression surgery | Ketorolac | Placebo | 25 | 62.3 | NR | 1 |
Farag et al.,93 2013 | RCT | I | Spinal surgery | Lidocaine (intravenously) | Placebo | 116 | 58 | 61.4 | 2 |
Fujita et al.,94 2016 | RCT | I | Posterior lumbar interbody fusion | Pregabalin, 75 or 150 mg | Placebo | 97 | 62.1 | 64.1 | 2 |
Garcia et al.,95 2013 | RCT | I | Lumbar decompression surgery | Celecoxib + pregabalin + oxycodone | Morphine | 22 | 68.6 | NR | 1 |
Garg et al.,96 2016 | RCT | I | Elective spinal surgery | Dexmedetomidine, 0.5 μg/kg bolus then 0.3 μg/kg per hour infusion | Placebo | 66 | 36.5 | 34.9 | 2 |
Glaser et al.,97 2016 | RCT | I | Lumbar spine procedures | tDCS | Placebo | 27 | 59.5 | 63 | NR |
Gottschalk et al.,98 2004 | RCT | I | Lumbar spine surgery | 0.1% ropivacaine, 12 mL/h epidural catheter | Placebo | 30 | 58.1 | 42.3 | 3 |
Hernández-Palazón et al.,99 2001 | RCT | I | Spinal fusion | Propacetamol, 2 g every 6 h (intravenously) | Placebo | 44 | 40.5 | 45.1 | 3 |
Jirarattanaphochai et al.,100 2007 | RCT | I | Lumbar spine surgery | Methylprednisolone–bupivacaine LAI | Placebo | 103 | 52 | 53.4 | 2 |
Karst et al.,101 2003 | RCT | I | Single-level microdiscectomy | Celecoxib, 200 mg twice daily | Placebo | 34 | 44.26 | 38.2 | 2 |
Kesmici et al.,102 2011 | RCT | I | Laminectomy | Dexketoprofen | Placebo | 50 | 42.2 | 44 | 1 |
Kim et al.,103 2013 | RCT | I | Posterior decompression + posterior lumbar interbody fusion | Ketamine, 0.5 mg/kg bolus then 1 or 2 μg/kg per minute infusion | Placebo | 60 | 57 | 53.8 | 2 |
Naik et al.,104 2016 | RCT | I | Thoracic or lumbar spine surgery | Dexmedetomidine | Placebo | 142 | 64 | NR | 3 |
Pandey et al.,105 2004 | RCT | I | Lumbar discectomy | Gabapentin, 300 mg | Placebo | 56 | 38.8 | 32.15 | 2 |
Rajpal et al.,106 2010 | RCT | I | Spinal surgery | Oxycodone + gabapentin + acetaminophen + dolasetron | PCA | 200 | 55.3 | 57 | 1 |
Riest et al.,107 2006 | RCT | I | Spinal, breast or orthopedic surgery | Rofecoxib, 50 mg peri- and postoperatively | Placebo | 540 | NR | NR | 3 |
Rowe et al.,108 1992 | RCT | I | Lumbar laminectomy | Indomethacin | Placebo | 30 | NR | NR | 1 |
Singh et al.,109 2019 | RCT | I | Elective lumbar spine surgery | ESPB | Placebo | 40 | 35.2 | 12.5 | 1 |
Turan et al.,110 2004 | RCT | I | Elective lumbar discectomy or spinal fusion surgery | Gabapentin | Placebo | 50 | 46.5 | 44 | 1 |
Unterrainer et al.,111 2008 | RCT | I | Elective posterior intervertebral body fusion of 2 or 3 lumbar vertebrae | 0.25% levobupivacaine, 10 mL LAI | Piritramide | 40 | 61.8 | NR | 1 |
Unterrainer et al.,112 2010 | RCT | I | Spinal surgery | TENS pre- and/or postoperatively | Placebo | 38 | 60.9 | 53.8 | 1 |
Yamashita et al.,113 2006 | RCT | I | Spinal fusion therapy | Flurbiprofen axetil pre- or postoperatively | Placebo | 36 | 61.7 | NR | 1 |
Ali et al.,114 2019 | PCS | II | Elective spinal or peripheral nerve surgery | ERAS protocol | Placebo | 275 | 61.1 | 46.2 | 30 |
Lovecchio et al.,115 2019 | OCS | II | Lumbar spine surgery (decompression and fusion) | Educational conference | No education | 2479 | 57.5 | 44.2 | NR |
Bohl et al.,116 2016 | RCS | III | ACDF | MAP | PCA | 239 | 48.5 | 47.3 | NR |
Smith et al.,117 2014 | RCS | III | Spinal surgery | Acetaminophen (intravenously) | Placebo | 68 | 50.4 | 75 | 3 |
Soffin et al.,118 2019 | RCR | III | Lumbar decompression | Acetaminophen + gabapentin | Fentanyl | 36 | 60.8 | 44 | 1 |
Chin et al.,119 2019 | Case Report | IV | Posterior spinal fusion | Acetaminophen + baclofen ESPB | Placebo | 1 | 35 | 100 | 11 |
Arthroscopy | |||||||||
Ahn et al.,120 2016 | RCT | I | Shoulder arthroscopy | Pregabalin, 150 mg | Placebo | 60 | 53 | 57 | 2 |
Butterfield et al.,121 2001 | RCT | I | ACL reconstruction | 0.25% bupivacaine + epinephrine LAI | Placebo | 24 | 31.5 | 22.3 | NR |
Ekman et al.,122 2016 | RCT | I | Knee arthroscopy | Celecoxib, 400 mg | Placebo | 200 | 45.2 | 42.6 | 1 |
Hoenecke et al.,123 2002 | RCT | I | ACL reconstruction | 0.25% bupivacaine (intra-articular infusion) | Placebo | 26 | 36.3 | 26.8 | 2 |
Ilan et al.,124 2004 | RCT | I | Knee arthroscopy | Rofecoxib, 50 mg | Placebo | 50 | NR | NR | 1 |
Lierz et al.,125 2012 | RCT | I | Therapeutic knee arthroscopy | Etoricoxib, 120 mg | Placebo | 66 | 54 | 60.6 | 1 |
Mahure et al.,126 2017 | RCT | I | Arthroscopic Bankart repair | TENS | Placebo | 68 | 58.7 | 51.3 | 7 |
Mardani-Kivi et al.,127 2013 | RCT | I | ACL reconstruction and meniscectomy | Celecoxib, 40 mg (ACL or meniscectomy) | Placebo | 130 | 29.4 | 73.1 | 1 |
Mardani-Kivi et al.,128 2016 | RCT | I | Arthroscopic Bankart repair | Gabapentin, 600 mg | Placebo | 76 | 28.3 | 24.1 | 1 |
Montazeri et al.,129 2007 | RCT | I | Knee arthroscopy | Gabapentin, 300 mg | Placebo | 70 | 34.7 | 33.9 | 1 |
Ringrose et al.,130 1984 | RCT | I | ACL reconstruction | 0.5% bupivacaine FNB | Placebo | 100 | 71.3 | 40.4 | 1 |
Saritas et al.,131 2015 | RCT | I | Arthroscopic shoulder surgery | Magnesium sulfate | Placebo | 67 | 40.7 | 48.3 | 1 |
Syed et al.,132 2018 | RCT | I | Arthroscopic rotator cuff repair | Education (preoperatively) | No education | 140 | 58.6 | 32.1 | 90 |
Matheny et al.,133 1993 | RCR | III | ACL reconstruction | 0.5% lidocaine LPB | PCA | 58 | 23.6 | 25.8 | 2 |
Edkin et al.,134 1995 | Case report | IV | ACL reconstruction | 0.5% bupivacaine, 2–3 mg/kg + epinephrine femoral 3-in-1 block | None | 25 | NR | 37.5 | 1 |
Other orthopedic surgery | |||||||||
Argoff et al.,135 2016 | RCT | I | Bunionectomy | Diclofenac, 18 or 35 mg or celecoxib | Placebo | 421 | 39.7 | 87 | 9 |
Bech et al.,136 2011 | RCT | I | Internal fixation (femoral neck fractures) | Ropivacaine (intra-articular infusion) + LAI | Placebo | 50 | 85 | NR | NR |
Delbos et al.,137 1995 | RCT | I | Knee ligamentoplasty | Propacetamol, 2 g every 6 h over 24 h (intravenously) | Placebo | 60 | 26 | 7 | 1 |
Diaz-Borjon et al.,138 2017 | RCT | I | Major orthopedic surgery | Parecoxib, 40 mg then 20 mg every 12 h | Placebo | 281 | 58.7 | 51.9 | 3 |
El-Kerdawy et al.,139 2008 | RCT | I | Lower extremity orthopedic surgery | 5% magnesium, 50 mg (intrathecally + spinal anesthetic) + 2% magnesium, 100 mg/h infusion | Placebo | 80 | 51.8 | 46.3 | 1 |
Fredman et al.,140 2000 | RCT | I | Subcapital fracture of femur ORIF | Diclofenac | Placebo | 40 | 77.5 | 75 | 1 |
Gehling et al.,141 2009 | RCT | I | Elective orthopedic surgery | Morphine, 0.1 or 0.2 mg + bupivacaine (intrathecally) | Placebo | 188 | 64.2 | 52.4 | 3 |
Hamal et al.,142 2015 | RCT | I | Lower extremity orthopedic surgery | Gabapentin, 600 mg | Placebo | 52 | 36.9 | 32.7 | 1 |
Jones et al.,143 1985 | I | Fixation of ICF (compression screw or pin and plate) | LCNB | Placebo | 19 | 81 | 94.7 | 1 | |
Kinsella et al.,144 1992 | RCT | I | Major or minor orthopedic surgery | Ketorolac trometamol | Placebo | 65 | 53.1 | 52.3 | 1 |
Mattila et al.,145 2010 | RCT | I | First metatarsal osteotomy | Dexamethasone, 9 mg | Placebo | 60 | 50 | 93 | 3 |
Mostafa et al.,146 2018 | RCT | I | Femur ORIF | Levobupivacaine FICB | Fentanyl PCA | 60 | 59.1 | 30 | 1 |
Park et al.,147 1996 | RCT | I | Major knee surgery (TKA or hemiarthroplasty of knee) | Clonidine | Placebo | 39 | 57.5 | 59 | 1.5 |
Sanzone et al.,148 2016 | RCT | I | Hip fracture fixation | Acetaminophen (intravenously) | Acetaminophen (orally) | 332 | NR | NR | 1 |
Southworth et al.,149 2009 | RCT | I | Elective single-site orthopedic or abdominal surgery | Ibuprofen, 400 or 800 mg | Placebo | 406 | 45.3 | 78.4 | 7 |
Twiston-Davies et al.,150 1990 | RCT | I | Hip or foot surgery | Indomethacin | Placebo | 85 | NR | 67.3 | 2 |
Waikakula et al.,151 2011 | RCT | I | Major orthopedic surgery | Celecoxib and/or gabapentin | Placebo | 99 | 49.6 | 46.5 | 1 |
Weinbroum,152 2002 | RCT | I | Inguinal hernia repair or joint arthroscopy | General anesthesia or epidural + dextromethorphan | Placebo | 75 | 53.3 | NR | 3 |
Xu et al.,153 2016 | RCT | I | Lower limb orthopedic trauma surgery | Ketorolac PCA | PCA | 63 | 49.9 | 47.6 | 2 |
Zhao et al.,154 2016 | RCT | I | Multiple-fracture surgery | Propofol + remifentanil + Ringer solution or dexmedetomidine | Placebo | 86 | 45.4 | 57.5 | 1 |
Dwyer et al.,155 2018 | PCS | II | CTR or distal radius ORIF | Educational handout, pain diary, pain catastrophizing questionnaire | No education | 145 | 63.4 | 63.6 | 14 |
McLaughlin et al.,156 2018 | PCS | II | TSA | NSAID + gabapentin interscalene block | Placebo | 150 | 70 | 44 | 2 |
Robbins et al.,157 2015 | PCS | II | Forefoot surgery | Liposomal bupivacaine LAI | Placebo | 40 | 58 | 82.5 | NR |
Ayling et al.,158 2014 | RCR | III | Major lower limb amputation | Perineural stump catheter with local anesthetic | Placebo | 198 | 51.1 | 69.9 | 3 |
Cao et al.,159 2018 | RCS | III | Abdominal or orthopedic surgery | Acetaminophen (intravenously) intra- and postoperatively | Placebo | 147 | 62 | 46.3 | 1 |
Stepan et al.,160 2019 | RCS | I | Ambulatory hand surgery | Education | Pre-education | 1348 | NR | NR | NR |
Maurer et al.,161 2002 | Case report | IV | Bilateral distal radius fracture | Ropivacaine BPD | Placebo | 1 | 21 | 100 | NR |
ACB = adductor canal block; ACC = adductor canal catheter; ACDF = anterior cervical discectomy and fusion; ACL = anterior cruciate ligament; BPD = brachial plexus block; CTR = carpal tunnel release; ERAS = Enhanced Recovery After Surgery; ESPB = erector spinae plane block; FICB = fascia iliaca compartment block; FNB = femoral nerve block; FTB = femoral triangle block; ICF = intertrochanteric fracture; iPACK = infiltration between popliteal artery and capsule of the knee; LAI = local anesthetic infiltration; LB-PAI = liposomal bupivacaine pericapsular injection; LCNB = lateral cutaneous nerve block; LPB = lumbar plexus block; MAP = multimodal analgesia protocol; MWT = millimetre wave therapy; NR = not reported; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; OCS = observational cohort study; ONB = obturator nerve block; ORIF = open reduction internal fixation; PCA = patient-controlled analgesia; PCS = prospective cohort study; PIA = preimplantation immersion anesthesia; RCS = retrospective cohort study; RCT = randomized controlled trial; ROS = retrospective observational study; SNB = sciatic nerve block; tDCS = transcranial direct current stimulation; TENS = transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation; TNB = tibial nerve block; TSA = total shoulder arthroplasty.
↵* Level I = RCTs, level II = prospective cohort studies, level III = retrospective cohort studies, level IV = case reports and case series.